A new Moses
One of the more fascinating tales from the late Roman Empire is about a man called Moses of Crete who declared himself to be the Messiah that the Jews had always been waiting for. He was, he told his fellow Jews, a reincarnation of his Old Testament namesake and promised them an even more spectacular miracle than the original Moses had allegedly shown. He would lead the Jewish people on the island back to Judea by dividing the Mediterranean Sea just like the original Moses is said to have done with the Red Sea.
But this was a promise that led to disaster for the Jewish community of the island with many of his followers drowning en masse. The story is a cautionary one and gives an insight into the extreme dangers of believing in a religion modelled on some sort of messiah or saviour and the blind belief that is invariably demanded from followers. So, let’s take a closer look at this tale from the 5th century – an era when the Western Roman Empire was rapidly crumbling away and religious intolerance was rising with Christianity having been made the official religion of the empire.
The Sources
Most people are familiar with the story of the original Moses. The salient section of his story – the short bit covering the crossing of the Red Sea – is covered in Exodus Chapter 14 of the Old Testament.
21 And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; and the LORD caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided.
22 And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground: and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left.
And, of course, the movie, the 1956 version starring Charlton Heston, which Cecil B. DeMille produced, is also worth seeing. In fact, an even earlier film on the same subject made by the same director in 1923 is available online.
The most well-known and one of the earliest sources for the ‘Second Moses’ is Socrates Scholasticus, a fourth/fifth-century Church Historian who as the title of his book suggests was documenting Church history. Living during the same period, he was a contemporary of this new Moses. Being a Church historian, his account is not impartial by any means when it comes to mentions of Pagans and Jews. The positive side of the book though is that it has plenty of non-church related references which makes his account useful as a resource for general, political and social history of that time. Socrates shows a lot of delight and satisfaction in his book when he narrates stories of the conversions of Pagans and Jews to Christianity. As expected the accounts are liberally sprinkled with alleged miraculous occurrences to show that Christianity was the true belief.
Another good source is John of Nikiû, the 7th-century Egyptian Coptic bishop of Nikiû. John is also an important source on the Muslim conquest of Egypt since he lived during the Arab invasion himself. Other sources include Agapius of Hierapolis, a 10th-century Melkite Christian Bishop and historian from Manbij in present-day Syria and the Arabic-speaking Christian writer al-Makīn ibn al-ʿAmīd writing in the 13th century amongst others.
Arrival of the Jews in Crete
So how did the Jews get to Crete in the first place? We know the Jewish community in Crete was quite an old one – Jews having first arrived on the island in good numbers in the 4th Century BCE. Many of these first immigrants had come as refugees following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great. Then there were further influxes as exiles from the Maccabean Revolt arrived on the island in the second century BCE. By this time, there were substantial numbers of Jews in the city of Gortyna which seems to have been the Jewish centre of gravity on the island. In fact, the city is also mentioned in the Old Testament book of 1 Maccabees 15:23. Large Jewish communities were also located in the towns of Kissamos, Hania, Rethymnon, Knossos and Sitia.
One of the best Jewish sources we have of this time is that of Philo of Alexandria who mentions in his account that most of the Greek islands had large Jewish settlements, Crete being one of the those with the largest. In terms of Roman sources, Tacitus also mentions large Jewish settlements on the island. So prevalent were the Jewish communities of Crete that he believed the Jews came from Crete itself with their nation named after Mount Ida on the island.
The Jews are said to have been refugees from the island of Crete who settled in the remotest corner of Libya in the days when, according to the story, Saturn was driven from his throne by the aggression of Jupiter. This is a deduction from the name Judaei by which they became known: the word is to be regarded as a barbarous lengthening of Idaei, the name of the people dwelling around the famous Mount Ida in Crete. (1) – Tacitus Book Five (1-13) of The Histories by Tacitus
The Jews of Crete are also mentioned in the New Testament ( in Acts 2:11) . So all in all, a well-established community on the island by the late Roman Times.
Changing times
By the mid-fifth century, the Western Roman Empire was on its last legs and would officially come to a close in 476CE. It was a time of violent religious conflict and repression as well. The atmosphere was one of strong Christian religious fervour as Christianity had taken a very strong hold over the empire and paganism had been banned and pretty much eliminated by the new Christian regimes of the later Roman Emperors.
And that left the Jews as the only other major religious community. But the Jews were also finding themselves constrained although they were protected to some extent under Roman law. While the Roman Emperors did not ban Judaism there was increasing legislation restricting Jews and Judaism in the social, political and religious spheres. These were mainly due to the Emperor Theodosius the Younger. His decrees – along with previous laws passed since Constantine a hundred years earlier – were collected and became known as the ‘Theodosian Code’. According to the Theodosian code, Jews were not allowed to own Christian slaves for example, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a Christian. Intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism.
Large conversions of Jews
Perhaps because of this repression, both Socrates Scholasticus and John of Nikiû and others describe large conversions of Jews at this time to Christianity. John of Nikiû attributes the conversions certainly partly to the persecution of Jews. Just before narrating the story of Moses of Crete, he mentions Emperor Theodosius being told the Jews in the eastern portion of the empire in Syria had been mocking Jesus and had allegedly killed a Christian child. In response, the Emperor instigated widespread reprisals against the community.
And when the emperor Theodosius was told of the atrocities committed by the Jews, he commanded the magistrates of the province to punish the criminals. And they punished the Jews that were in the east and took vengeance on all the mockers who had mocked Christ and His faithful ones. – John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû also mentions the Jews of Crete themselves undergoing large-scale conversions because of this persecution by Emperor Theodosius.
And in those days many of the Jews in Crete believed and became Christians in consequence of the greatness of the persecution that befell them. – John of Nikiû
The prophesy of a new ‘Moses’
But creating an upbeat atmosphere in the community according to the sources of the time was the popular impression many Jews had that – according to an interpretation of the Talmud – a messiah should appear around 440 CE to lead the Jewish nation. And many Jews were looking forward to this event including those living in Crete. Various historians write on the hankering for a Messiah-type figure amongst the Jews of the time as well.
“…fifth century Jews living in the diaspora yearned to return to the land of Israel and would enthusiastically follow a leader who promised to lead them home.” – Robert Louis Wilken, the Professor Emeritus of the History of Christianity at the University of Virginia,
This made the common people highly vulnerable to any charismatic preacher appearing and claiming to be the person they were waiting for. And the Roman Empire being in such a state of flux and uncertainty at this time may have raised expectations still further just like Christian expectations of a second coming are touted around every time there is some large-scale conflict or natural disaster supposedly heralding the second coming.
The coming of Moses
So it was in these times when Jewish expectations were highest that Moses of Crete appeared and began preaching on the island. John of Nikiû in his account mentions that his real name was Fiskis but that he referred to himself as Moses. Fiskis addressed the Jewish communities of the island.
And there was a Jew named Fiskis who in his own person played the rôle of impostor, saying: ‘I am Moses the chief of the prophets; for I have been sent from heaven by God. I have come to conduct the Jews who dwell in this island through the sea, and I will establish you in the land of promise.’ And by these means he led them astray, saying unto them: ‘I am he that delivered your fathers out of the hand of Pharaoh when they were in bondage to the Egyptians.’ – John of Nikiû
Socrates also mentions the same information adding Fiskis had spent over a year preaching throughout the island and was successful in gathering a following.
A certain Jewish impostor pretended that he was Moses, and had been sent from heaven to lead out the Jews inhabiting that island, and conduct them through the sea: for he said that he was the same person who formerly preserved the Israelites by leading them through the Red Sea. During a whole year therefore he perambulated the several cities of the island, and persuaded the Jews to believe such assurances. He moreover bid them renounce their money and other property, pledging himself to guide them through a dry sea into the land of promise. – Socrates
Agapius also mention Fiskis stressing he had a divine mission.
At this time, a certain man appeared among the Jews, whose name was Moses, and said to them: Verily, I have come down from heaven to save you, as did Moses the son of ʿImrān. This was on one of the islands of the sea, known as Crete. – Agapius
This would be a far more spectacular miracle than the original Moses had executed. For one thing, the Red Sea is only around 10 miles in width at its narrowest point. A person or group of people could walk that distance in one night – if we assume that the alleged miracle took place that is. The distance between Crete and Israel is around five hundred miles and that is a distance that would take around a couple of months if not more by a group of not only men but women and children and elderly. So, a miracle an order of magnitude bigger than what the original Moses and his clan allegedly managed. And there doesn’t seem to have been any discussion or questions raised on logistics either. Food for instance for a journey lasting this long. Presumably, Moses of Crete thought that food from heaven – manna in other words or something similar – would drift down for his people.
Vast numbers of people fooled
Whatever the case, it’s apparent many Jews developed a strong belief in this new Moses and followed his instructions to the hilt. Socrates describes the Jews of the island selling all their possessions as Moses had commanded and that many simply gave up working in expectation of this coming journey.
Deluded by such expectations, they neglected business of every kind, despising what they possessed, and permitting any one who chose to take it. – Socrates
John of Nikiû suggests it was Moses himself who industriously encouraged his people to stop working as the time was near when they would be crossing the sea.
And he spent an entire year in traversing and proclaiming this event and leading them astray in all the cities and villages. And he prevailed on them to abandon their industries and to despise their goods and possessions. And so they dissipated all that they had. – John of Nikiû
The day of the crossing
And then suddenly one day, Moses decided that that would be the day of the great miracle and encouraged all his followers to come with him to the coast in anticipation of the crossing of the sea.
When the day appointed by this deceiver for their departure had arrived, he himself took the lead, and all followed with their wives and children. He led them therefore until they reached a promontory that overhung the sea, from which he ordered them to fling themselves headlong into it. – Socrates
Agapius suggests he himself was one of the first to jump off the cliff.
One day they walked with him on the seashore, with their children and their wives in a large crowd, until they came to a place that overlooked the sea. Then he said to them: Verily, I will take you across the sea, beginning with myself – Agapius
We don’t know exactly where Moses led them and which promontory this was. It’s probable he led them to the eastern side of the island which is the nearest point to begin the crossing of the sea and therefore it may have been the neck of land stretching out into the sea near Akrotirio Plaka or perhaps Argilos Beach or Goudouras.
Death on the rocks
It wasn’t long before – as his followers commenced jumping into the sea after him and those waiting on top of the cliff readied themselves to jump – that many realised that the sea was not parting and leaving a dry path for them. By this time many of his followers who had already jumped in the sea had already died.
Those who came first to the precipice did so, and were immediately destroyed, some of them being dashed in pieces against the rocks, and some drowned in the waters: and more would have perished, had not the Providence of God led some fishermen and merchants who were Christians to be present. These persons drew out and saved some that were almost drowned, who then in their perilous situation became sensible of the madness of their conduct. The rest they hindered from casting themselves down, by telling them of the destruction of those who had taken the first leap. – Socrates
John of Nikiû has a similar story with many dying simply from the fall from such a height.
And when the day which he had fixed for leading them out drew near, he commanded them to come with their wives and children and follow him to the sea-shore, and cast themselves into the sea. And many perished, some through the fall and others from being engulfed in the depths of the sea. – John of Nikiû
He also gives the story a Christian spin by mentioning crowds of curious Christians watching the scene who then helped rescue the survivors in the sea by helping them back to the shore.
But God who loves mankind had compassion on His creatures and saved them lest they should all perish by this hard fate. 8. And many Christians who were present on the spot at the time in order to see (what would happen) saved a large number from being drowned in the sea. The rest who had not cast themselves into the sea were saved by this means. – John of Nikiû
The anger of the disciples
Moses’ followers were understandably enraged at the failure of the miracle to manifest itself and the resulting deaths of many of their friends and families and Socrates describes them hunting around for Moses. And it looks like he would have been lynched by his own disciples for causing such an incident.
When at length the Jews perceived how fearfully they had been duped, they blamed first of all their own indiscreet credulity, and then sought to lay hold of the pseudo-Moses in order to put him to death. – Socrates
The death of Moses
At this point, we get the biggest variation in the stories regarding the death or disappearance of Moses depending on which source you read. Most Christian writers prefer to give the ending a supernatural flavour showing Moses as a villain associated with demons and spirits. Socrates certainly suggests this.
But they were unable to seize him, for he suddenly disappeared which induced a general belief that it was some malignant fiend, who had assumed a human form for the destruction of their nation in that place. In consequence of this experience many of the Jews in Crete at that time abandoning Judaism attached themselves to the Christian faith. – Socrates
And this is what another source Agapius of Heiropolis describes too attributing his disappearance to some ‘unclean spirits’.
Many of them rushed into the sea and drowned. When the others saw this, and what had happened to their brethren, i.e., that they had drowned, they refrained from throwing themselves into the water, and wanted to seize him, but he ran away from them, and some unclean spirits accepted him. – Agapius of Manbij
Cassiodorus a fellow Christian also goes for the supernatural explanation writing that it was a demon that led the Jews into error.
And when it became known to the rest of the Jews, they rushed from all sides so that they would seize Pseudo-Moses and did not find him. And they decided that it was a demon who had led them into error. – Cassiodorus
However, others gave more down-to-earth reasons simply mentioning he was despatched by his own angry supporters and that is no doubt a more authentic version. Fleeing from the mob would have been no simple task and certainly on an island it would not have been easy to make a getaway. Al-Makin ibn al-‘Amid writes that his followers managed to apprehend Moses and then killed him in anger.
When the others saw this, and the fact that he did not save them from drowning, they wanted to seize him. He fled, but they seized him and killed him. And then many of the people became Christians. – al-Makin ibn al-‘Amid
John of Nikiû writes that Moses’ disappearance can be attributed to drowning, an equally likely explanation as he most probably jumped into the sea before his disciples to show them the way.
Conversion of his followers
So what was the result of this delusion and what happened to his followers who survived the tragedy? Most of the Christian writers give the story a positive spin and end by mentioning that the Jews who survived the disaster – disgusted at what happened – began converting en masse to Christianity. And this is certainly what Agapius and John of Nikiû describe.
And some people among them became Christians. – Agapius
And when they saw that the false prophet had perished,” engulfed in the sea, they recognized thereupon that he was an impostor, and forthwith abandoned their erroneous belief. 10. Through these means many Jews turned to our Lord Jesus Christ and received the light of holy life-giving baptism and believed in our Lord Jesus Christ. 11. (This event took place) in the days of the Godloving emperor Theodosius the Younger and in those of Attieus, patriarch of the great city of Constantinople. – John of Nikiû
Socrates also suggests this although both of these accounts may just be hyperbole from fervent Christians.
About this period a great number of Jews who dwelt in Crete were convened to Christianity, through the following disastrous circumstance. – Socrates
A similar story from modern times
So an interesting – if sobering – story relating to the belief and expectations in a messiah figure. And this belief when added with the gullibility of common people combined to create a disaster for the Jewish community. And with Christianity inheriting the same belief in prophecies and messiahs and miracles, this kind of event has also occurred in Christian communities as well.
Perhaps the most famous example was the Millerite movement during the 19th century. The Millerites – who took their name from William Miller who had started the movement – believed that the Christian Messiah Jesus Christ would be making a comeback between March 21, 1843, and March 21, 1844. The substantial number of people who followed William Miller – just like the Jews who followed Moses of Crete – gave away or sold off all their possessions as they thought the end was near. And of course when Jesus failed to appear many were left destitute and without any financial support. William Miller had managed to gain large support and the lack of the second coming led to what was called the ‘Great Disappointment’ in America.
